A first attempt to provide correct information on taxonomy, habitat, and distribution of 15 taxa considered as “medicinal mushrooms” and widely used in Italy for food, medicine and commercial purposes is here presented. For each taxon, notes on hosts and ecological categories are also provided. Eight taxa are widely distributed throughout Italy, one is endemic to Sicilia, while 5 taxa follow the distribution in Italy of their respective host plants. The study can also ensure appropriate labeling of mushroom-based products on the market being the basis of a proper made-in-Italy supply chain.

Distribution, habitat, medicinal mushrooms, mushroom-based products, taxonomy

Many species of Dikarya (Tedersoo et al. 2018) belong to a category of fungi commonly referred to as ‘medicinal mushrooms,’ which are used for the prevention, alleviation, or treatment of diseases, and/or for their nutritional benefits (Lindequist et al. 2014). Due to the high content of bioactive compounds they are used as dietary supplements or functional food (Wasser 2002; Gargano et al. 2017; Venturella et al. 2021; Łysakowska et al. 2023). Currently, most fungal extracts and dried medicinal mushroom powders come from large-scale cultivation carried out mainly in Asia, where most production facilities lack internationally recognized Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). In addition, powders and extracts on the market are often derived from mushrooms lacking certificate of origin and sometimes of doubtful taxonomic identification, failing to meet the quality requirements of current European regulations (Risoli et al. 2023). Although the literature is rich in studies on the effects of medicinal fungi on various human and animal diseases, including both in vitro and in vivo assays (Gargano et al. 2017), very little is known about the growth habitats and proper taxonomic identification. Data on the taxonomy, morphological description, and distribution of some medicinal fungi such as Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél., Tremella fuciformis Berk., T. mesenterica Retz., Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P.Karst., Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P.Kumm., P. pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél., and Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler were provided by some authors (Wasser et al. 1999; Guzmán et al. 2000). Characteristics of habitats of Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray collected in Northern temperate regions in North America, Europe, Japan, and China were subsequently reported (Chen et al. 2000). Other authors (Nanagulyan et al. 2002; Zmitrovich et al. 2010) investigated the biodiversity and ecology of the medicinal mushrooms of Armenia and the taxonomy of the members of the family Polyporaceae. A morphological characterization of Ganoderma oerstedii (Fr.) Murrill from Mexico, combined with a phylogenetic study based in rDNA sequences, was provided by Mendoza et al. (2011). Taxonomic relationships of Pleurotus opuntiae (Durieu & Lév.) Sacc. with P. djamor (Rumph. ex Fr.) Boedijn, P. agaves Dennis, Lentinus levis (Berk. & M.A.Curtis) Murrill [sub. P. levis (Berk. & M.A.Curtis) Singer], and P. yuccae Maire were evaluated by Camacho et al. (2012). Such studies have been taken up in more recent times by Zervakis et al. (2019) highlighting how the use of the binomial Pleurotus opuntiae should be restricted to fungi from the Mediterranean area only. Following the widespread use of molecular techniques, the binomials of fungal species are often changing. This has led to numerous changes in the nomenclature of medically important species, such as yeasts. A major concern is that physicians may use species names that could negatively impact diagnoses. Clarification of nomenclatural ambiguity in the case of medicinal mushrooms is a very important issue as also demonstrated with the studies on Psilocybe (Fr.) P.Kumm. species from Japan (Guzmán et al. 2013). Similar studies have been carried out by Gargano et al. (2024) on the uncertain taxonomy of Pleurotus nebrodensis (Inzenga) Quél. in the case of commercial products reporting this scientific binomial in Asian countries. Results demonstrated that all “P. nebrodensis” material examined from Asia corresponded to another taxon named P. eryngii subsp. tuoliensis. Another study tending to clarify some unclear aspects in the use of commercial products under the name of Tremella fuciformis Berk. was carried out by Deng et al. (2016). Zmitrovich and Wasser (2016) analyzed the critical scientific name of “Pleurotus sajor-caju” reaching the conclusion that the mushroom represents a tropical ecotype of P. pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél. named P. pulmonarius var. stechangii. Zmitrovich et al. (2017) contributed to stabilize the nomenclature of Trametes ochracea (Pers.) Gilb. & Ryvarden [under the name T. multicolor (Schaeff.) Jülich]. Due to the presence of numerous taxa with morphological characters similar to Ganoderma lucidum, pharmacological research has been greatly affected in the proper evaluation of results. For these reasons, Papp et al. (2017) highlighted the correct nomenclature and taxonomy of the group G. lucidum by distinguishing a G. lucidum aggregate and the taxon G. sichuanense J.D.Zhao & X.Q.Zhang, originally described as G. lingzhi Sheng H.Wu, Y.Cao & Y.C.Dai. The importance of a morphological identification combined with a molecular approach is the basis of a study conducted by Cesaroni et al. (2019) on the Hericium clade which includes the H. erinaceus group and the H. alpestre/H. coralloides group.

In the studies of medicinal mushrooms, there is little use of the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and Plants (Turland et al. 2025) and references are often linked to old scientific binomials reported in the literature (Hawksworth 2005). The analysis of fungal distribution data is fundamental in Mycology, especially for identifying biodiversity hotspots and predicting responses to habitat changes caused by human activities and climate changes. Furthermore, to understand the ecology and biodiversity levels, it is necessary to evaluate environmental factors, such as climate, habitat, and host species.

In this paper we provide the correct nomenclature of the main medicinal mushrooms collected and studied in Italy, together with indication on their distribution and habitat data.

Periodic observations, weekly or fortnightly (monthly during summer), in different forest ecosystems, in urban areas, in public and private gardens, and in botanical gardens has been carried out during the last 5 years (2021–2025). In particular we investigated several regions of the Italian territory (Puglia, Calabria, Emilia-Romagna, Sardegna, Sicilia, and Toscana) and we collected fresh basidiomata in meadows, pastures, living and dead plants identifying them using the methods described below. We also refer to data arising from literature (Bernicchia 2005; Venturella et al. 2015; Cesaroni et al. 2019; Zervakis et al. 2019). In addition, we selected 15 taxa of medicinal mushrooms, that are the subject of applied research in Italy and most of which are marketed in the form of mushroom-based products. For the selection of the 15 taxa with medicinal properties (Table 1) reported in our study, we analyze the Checklist of Basidiomycota by Onofri et al. (2005), which includes 4198 taxa growing in Italy.

For each species, the fresh basidiomata were collected and then identified according to their macroscopic (pileus, flesh, lamellae, stipe, type of occurrence: solitary, grouped, clustered, cespitose, color of spore prints, etc.) and microscopic characters (spores, basidia, asci, cystidia, pileipellis, element of the stipe surface, etc.). Microscopic features were analyzed under distilled water, immersion oil, and chemical reagents such as Melzer’s reagent, KOH, Ammoniated Congo Red, and Cotton blue-lactic acid. Analytical keys were used for each different genera, i.e. Bernicchia (2005), Breitenbach and Kranzlin (1984), Venturella et al. (2015).

The abbreviation of type of habitat reported in Table 1 are according to EUNIS terrestrial habitat classification review 2017 (https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/eunis-habitat-classification/eunis-habitat-classification-review-2017) and derived from the database of The Network for the Study of Fungal Diversity (NMD) by the Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA).

We also provide data on habitats because environmental factors contribute to determining the distribution and abundance of the investigated mushrooms. In accordance with the database of The Network for the Study of Fungal Diversity (NMD) by ISPRA, and the Habitats code adopted in the EUNIS nomenclature classification manual for Italy (2004) we selected the following habitat: E1.3 - Mediterranean xeric grasslands; E2.1 - Permanent mesophilic pastures and meadows grazed by livestock; B1.7 - Coastal dune forests; E5.21 - Margins of xerophilic forests; E5.22 - Margins of mesophilic forests; G1 - Deciduous broadleaf woods and forests; G1.2 - Riparian woods and forests of Fraxinus - Alnus sp. or Quercus - Ulmus – Fraxinus sp.; G1.3 - Mediterranean riparian woods and forests of Populus sp., Fraxinus sp., Ulmus sp. and related species; G1.6 – Fagus sp. woods and forests; G1.7 – Thermophilic broadleaf woods and forests; G1.7C – Mixed thermophilic woods; G1.7D – Castanea sativa woods and forests (including fruit crops; that have now become naturalized); G1.8 – Acidophilic woodlands and forests dominated by Quercus sp.; G1.9 – Non-riparian woodlands and forests of Betula sp., Populus tremula, Sorbus aucuparia or Corylus sp.; G1.A - Forests and woodlands of Quercus sp., Carpinus sp., Fraxinus sp., Acer sp., Tilia; sp., Ulmus sp. and related genera, on mesotrophic or eutrophic soils; G1.A2 - Non-riparian forests of Fraxinus sp.; G1.A3 - Forests of Carpinus betulus; G1.C - Highly artificial afforestation and plantations of deciduous broadleaved trees; G1.D - Fruit plantations; G2 - Evergreen broadleaved woods and forests; G2.81 - Plantations of Eucalyptus sp.; G3 – Coniferous woods and forests; G3.5 - Pinus nigra and related species forests; G3.7 - Pinus sp. forests (excluding Pinus nigra) of the Mediterranean area; G3.72 - Supra- or sub-Mediterranean forests of Pinus pinaster subsp. atlantica; G3.73 - Forests of Pinus pinea; G3.74 - Forests of Pinus halepensis; G3.F - Highly artificial afforestation and plantations of conifers; G5 - Hedges, rows, artificial tree lines, afforestation and coppice or degraded woods; I2 - Cultivated parks and gardens.

The indication of ecological categories in fungi is relevant for understanding their role as decomposers, pathogens, or symbionts. They are also useful in providing information on ecosystem stability, biodiversity, biotechnological potential, and conservation status. The abbreviation of ecological categories reported in Table 2 corresponds to Terricolous saprotrophs (St), Parasites (P) and Saprotrophs on wood (Sw). The abbreviation of the regions reported in Table 2 matches to Abruzzo (A), Basilicata (B), Calabria (C), Campania (Ca), Emilia-Romagna (E), Friuli Venezia Giulia (F), Lazio (L), Liguria (Li), Lombardia (Lo), Marche (M), Molise (Mo), Piemonte (P), Puglia (Pu), Sardegna (S), Sicilia (Si), Toscana (T), Trentino-Alto Adige (Tr), Umbria (U), Valle d’Aosta (Va), and Veneto (V). The data reported for Puglia, Calabria, Emilia-Romagna, Sardegna, Sicilia e Toscana were obtained from recent field surveys conducted between 2021 and 2025, while those relating to other regions were obtained from studies conducted by Onofri et al. in 2005.

The dried specimens were obtained in an universal dryer 475Watt stainless steel structure and kept in the Fungarium of the Herbarium SAF of the Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences of the University of Palermo. The Fungarium codes of each taxa are SAFMM01 (Agaricus bisporus), SAFMM02 (Auricularia auricula-judae), SAFMM03 (Ganoderma lucidum), SAFMM04 (Grifola frondosa), SAFMM05 (Hericium erinaceus), SAFMM06 (Inonotus obliquus), SAFMM07 (Laetiporus sulphureus), SAFMM08 (Pleurotus eryngii var. eryngii), SAFMM09 (P. eryngii var. elaeoselini), SAFMM10 (P. eryngii var. ferulae), SAFMM11 (P. eryngii var. thapsiae), SAFMM12 (P. nebrodensis), SAFMM13 (P. ostreatus), SAFMM14 (Schizophyllum commune), and SAFMM15 (Trametes versicolor),

The nomenclature follows Index Fungorum (https://www.indexfungorum.org) for fungi and Plants of World Online (POWO, https://powo.science.kew.org/) for vascular plants (date of consultation July 2025).

The distribution and type of habitat of 15 medicinal mushroom taxa, i.e. Agaricus bisporus (J.E.Lange) Imbach, Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél., Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Ryvarden, Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers., Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát, Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.) Murrill, Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray, Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P.Kumm., Pleurotus eryngii (DC.) Quél. var. eryngii, P. eryngii var. elaeoselini Venturella, Zervakis & La Rocca, P. eryngii var. ferulae (Lanzi) Sacc., P. eryngii var. thapsiae Venturella, Zervakis & Saitta, P. nebrodensis (Inzenga) Quèl, Schizophyllum commune Fr., and Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd are reported in Table 1 while the ecological categories and distribution of each taxon in Italy are included in Table 2.

The selected taxa belongs to the ecological categories of terricolous saprotrophs (St, 6 taxa) and saprotrophs on wood (Sw,5 taxa), 4 taxa are parasites and they act also as saprothrophs after the host is dead, 8 taxa (A. bisporus, A. auricula-judae, G. lucidum, L. sulphureus, P. eryngii var. eryngii, P. ostreatus, S. commune, and T. versicolor) are very frequent along the Italian territory.

The results obtained in our research correspond to what is reported in the Checklist of Onofri et al. (2005) as regards the distribution of the selected medicinal mushroom taxa, with the exception of the Pleurotus taxa growing on the dead roots of the Apiaceae which have been well characterized from the taxonomic and nomenclatural point of view in the publication by Venturella et al. (2015). Agaricus bisporus, Auricularia auricula-judae, G. lucidum, S. commune, and T. versicolor are very common along the Italian territory. The presence of G. frondosa is currently excluded for Abruzzo, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Marche, Molise, Puglia, and Valle d’Aosta (Onofri et al. 2005). In addition to the classic brown or grayish color of the sporophores of G. frondosa, an albino form has recently been identified in the Madonie Mountains (northern Sicilia) on a different host (Q. ilex). It is very rare and also has interesting nutritional and medicinal properties, according to Gargano et al. (2020).

Hericium erinaceus, somewhat rare and with sporadic reports, has been reported so far in 11 Italian regions, while the rare and endangered P. nebrodensis is endemic to Sicilia. Other Pleurotus taxa, growing as saprotrophs on Apiaceae dead root plants, such as P. eryngii var. eryngii, P. eryngii var. elaeoselini, P. eryngii var. ferulae, and P. eryngii var. thapsiae, follow the distribution in Italy of their respective host plants, namely Eryngium campestre L., E. maritimum L., Elaeoselinum asclepium (L.) Bertol., Ferula communis L., and Thapsia garganica L.

The same is true for I. obliquus, whose distribution is restricted to Emilia-Romagna, Lombardia, Piemonte, Sicilia, Trentino-Alto Adige, and Valle d’Aosta, as a specific host of Betula pendula Roth and B. aetnensis Raf. ex J.Presl & C.Presl.

As shown in Table 1, habitat types are highly variable ranging from arid and dry environments like sandy beaches and Mediterranean xeric grassland to montane and subalpine woodlands. The host plants ranging from trees and shrubs to herbaceous plants. The most common habitat is oak, beech, and chestnut woods and Mediterranean maquis. Some species such as P. ostreatus, S. commune, and T. versicolor are also common in low- and high-elevation riparian forests. Plants used in reafforestation and also as ornamental in urban areas, hosted some species of food and medicinal interest like A. auricula-judae, L. sulphureus, and P. ostreatus. Some others species mainly L. sulphureus and S. commune are frequently found in fruit trees like Ceratonia siliqua L., Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck, C. × sinensis (L.) Osbeck, and Prunus domestica L.

The research conducted on the most widely used species of medicinal interest in Italy is by far the first that provides precise insights into their distribution and ecological features. By understanding the natural habitat of medicinal mushrooms, we also aimed to provide useful guidance to individual mushroom hunters who make dietary use of certain species that combine excellent organoleptic characteristics with medicinal properties. This survey also takes its cue from the need for a certified, made-in-Italy supply chain of new mushroom-based products that would allow Italian companies to avoid turning for the purchase of medicinal mushrooms and their extracts to third countries that do not guarantee either correct species identification or good manufacturing practices. Correct information on the taxonomy and habitat of medicinal fungi is crucial for a correct approach to the study of these species whose derived products are intended for integrated medicines and the treatment of various diseases in humans and animals.

Project funded under the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), Mission 4, Component 2 Investment 1.4—Call for tender No. 3138 of 16 December 2021, rectified by Decree n.3175 of 18 December 2021 of Italian Ministry of University and Research funded by the European Union—NextGenerationEU. Project code CN_00000033, Concession Decree No. 1034 of 17 June 2022 adopted by the Italian Ministry of University and Research, CUP B73C22000790001, Project title “National Biodiversity Future Center—NBFC”.